How do Papuan verbs mark the subject and object of an action?

In Papuan languages, verbs often exhibit complex morphology and use affixes to indicate the person and number of both the subject and the object of an action.1

While systems vary, these markers are typically applied as follows:

• Affixation: Verbs generally use prefixes and suffixes to encode participants. For example, in the Fore language, the object is marked with a prefix, while the subject is marked with a suffix.1
• Distinct Markers: In some languages, such as Nimboran, the person and number of the subject and object are each expressed through distinct affixes.1
• Indirect Objects: Some languages also use affixes to mark the indirect object of a verb.1
• Genetic Indicators: The use of specific verbal prefixes to mark the object of a transitive verb—such as the use of /n-/ for the first person singular—is considered a reliable indicator of genetic relationships among certain Papuan language groups.2

In addition to marking subjects and objects, these verbal affixes often simultaneously convey information regarding tense, aspect, mood, and sometimes the location or direction of the action.1