How did the meaning of the English words witch and witchcraft change over time?

The meanings of the English words witch and witchcraft have evolved significantly over time, shifting from labels for malevolent harm to diverse identities and practices.12

Historical and Early Modern Context

Historically, witchcraft was primarily defined as the use of supernatural or occult powers to cause harm, or maleficium. During the early modern period (15th–18th centuries), European and colonial witch trials expanded this definition. Witches were increasingly viewed by Christian authorities as Satanists who engaged in diabolical conspiracies, including the witches’ sabbath.134

Broadening and Reappropriation

Over time, the terms gained broader, often morally neutral meanings:12

• Ritual Practice: Witchcraft came to describe a wide range of ritual practices intended to manipulate spiritual forces for various purposes, including healing and divination, rather than solely for harm.12
• Social and Feminist Identity: The term witch has been used to describe women perceived as independent, rebellious, or antisocial. While sometimes employed in a misogynistic manner, it has also been reappropriated by feminist activists as a symbol of empowerment.15
• Modern Religious Groups: In the 20th and 21st centuries, the term has been adopted by modern religious groups, most notably Wicca, where practitioners identify as witches to describe their spiritual traditions.16