How did the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 address price fixing and monopolies?

The Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 was the first federal legislation in the United States designed to curb concentrations of power that interfere with trade and reduce economic competition. It addressed price fixing and monopolies through two primary provisions:12

• Restraint of Trade: The act outlaws all combinations, such as formal cartels or conspiracies, that restrain trade between states or with foreign nations. This includes any agreement among competitors to fix prices, limit industrial output, share markets, or exclude competition.13
• Monopolization: The act makes illegal all attempts to monopolize any part of trade or commerce in the United States.1

These provisions are enforceable by the U.S. Department of Justice through federal court litigation. Penalties for violations include fines, imprisonment, and court-ordered dissolution of firms. Additionally, private parties harmed by these anticompetitive practices may sue for triple damages. While the act established the foundation for antitrust law, its language was initially broad, leading to later legislation like the Clayton Antitrust Act to further clarify and strengthen enforcement against monopolistic practices.14