How did the Qin and Han dynasties recruit officials for the Chinese bureaucracy?

During the Qin dynasty, recruitment into the bureaucracy was primarily based on recommendations made by local officials.1

The Han dynasty initially adopted this recommendation-based system, which functioned through an apprenticeship model. Aspiring officials typically served in local-level bureaus, where they gained administrative experience and proved their competence in clerical roles. From these positions, meritorious individuals were recommended or sponsored by existing officials based on their demonstrated intelligence and integrity. Provincial units were also required to send quotas of candidates to the capital, where they might be tested on policy or administration and subsequently appointed as advisers or officials.12

A significant shift occurred in 124 bce under Emperor Wudi, who established an imperial university to train and test officials specifically in the techniques of Confucian government. While this introduced a formal educational component, it differed from the later, more rigid examination systems, as the Han period relied heavily on merit-based advancement through local service rather than a standardized, empire-wide examination process.12