How did the Kuna of Panama respond to Spanish cultural influence?

The arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century significantly disrupted the traditional structure of the Kuna people, who were then a politically influential group living in federated villages.1

The primary effect of European contact was the destruction of the Kuna's established political superstructure, which had previously featured powerful chiefs and a well-developed class system. Furthermore, Spanish influence led to modifications in the Kuna's social and religious systems. While the Kuna formerly worshipped the sun and moon as major deities, their mythology was subsequently altered by European conceptions.1

In the centuries following these initial impacts, the Kuna transitioned to living in smaller villages, shifting their primary focus to agriculture, supplemented by fishing and hunting. Today, their religious practices center on shamans who focus on curing the sick and practicing witchcraft, reflecting an evolution of their cultural traditions in the wake of colonial disruption.1