How did the Araucanians resist both the Inca and Spanish expansions?

The Araucanians, particularly the Mapuche, are renowned for their long-standing resistance to foreign domination. While the Inca exerted influence over northern groups like the Picunche, they were ultimately unable to subdue the Araucanians as a whole.12

To resist the Spanish during the Araucanian wars, the Mapuche fundamentally reorganized their society. Key strategies included:32

• Military Alliances: They moved beyond their traditional village-level political structure to form widespread military, political, and economic federations.132
• Tactical Adaptation: Warriors learned to utilize the horse against the Spanish and adopted new tactics, sometimes incorporating knowledge of Spanish weaponry and military organization gained by leaders like Lautaro, who had previously served under the Spanish.132
• Geographic Defense: Following significant conflicts, such as the defeat of Pedro de Valdivia in 1553, the Mapuche maintained a strong presence in the forest regions south of the Biobío River, which served as a boundary for three centuries.12

While the Picunche and Huilliche were eventually assimilated, the Mapuche successfully resisted Spanish and later Chilean control for 350 years before being subdued in the late 19th century.132