How did scientific methods contribute to the development of systems engineering?

Systems engineering is fundamentally an extension of standard scientific methodology, inheriting a tradition of listing factors affecting a situation and selecting those that are critical. Its development was shaped by several key scientific and analytical influences:1

• Mathematical Modeling: Perhaps the most basic tool in the field, mathematical modeling is a technique derived from quantitative scientific traditions. It allows engineers to evaluate the effectiveness of designs and manage technical uncertainties during the planning of new equipment.12
• Operations Research: Originating during World War II, this field provided analytical techniques for the optimal employment of equipment. Systems engineering shares many of these methods, using them to evaluate tentative designs in the same way an operations research specialist would analyze existing hardware.2
• Feedback and Control Theory: Scientific study of dynamic systems, particularly those involving interlaced feedback paths, became a cornerstone of the field. This was critical in developing complex systems like missile defense, where ground computers and radar signals form closed feedback loops.3
• Computational Science: The advent of computers provided the necessary tools for extensive calculations and direct simulation, enabling the processing of large data sets and the management of complex, information-heavy systems.3