How did local rulers govern coastal states in Madagascar between 1500 and 1650?

Between 1500 and 1650, Madagascar was politically fragmented, characterized by small, independent local states located primarily along the coast near river mouths. Governance varied significantly by region:12

• Leadership Structures: In some areas, rulers held absolute power, while in others, elders and priests exerted the most influence.12
• Theocratic and Aristocratic Models: In southeastern regions, such as the area later known as Fort-Dauphin, some groups—like the Zafindraminia—were organized under an aristocracy with privileges linked to Islam. By the 1630s, the Antemoro had established a theocratic state that utilized written texts in the Malagasy language using the Arabic alphabet. For the Antemoro, proximity to the Muslim faith was a primary criterion for the right to rule.12
• Economic and Political Context: These coastal states were often part of an Afro-Arab commercial network. Political life was defined by small territorial domains, and while wars and alliances occurred, they were typically short-lived, involved limited economic objectives, and rarely resulted in permanent border changes.12