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How did hunting, fishing, gathering, and farming vary across North America?

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A dancer in a bright pink shawl with fringe, wearing traditional regalia adorned with blue and black accents, performs at an outdoor cultural event. — Native American November is the traditional time of harvest, gathering, and celebration in Native communities.

Subsistence strategies among Indigenous peoples in North America varied significantly based on local environments, ranging from specialized foraging to complex agricultural systems.1

Foraging and Hunting

Many groups relied primarily on hunting and gathering. In the Arctic, peoples depended on sea mammals, fish, and caribou. In the Pacific Northwest, the abundance of salmon, shellfish, and other marine resources allowed for permanent villages and high population densities. On the Great Plains, nomadic tribes historically followed buffalo herds, a practice that became highly efficient after the introduction of the horse.2134

Agriculture and Managed Landscapes

Agricultural practices also varied by region:
* Southwest: Groups developed sophisticated irrigation and water-management systems, such as canals and check dams, to grow corn, beans, and squash.5
* Eastern North America: Societies cultivated the Eastern Agricultural Complex, including sunflower, sumpweed, and squash, later incorporating corn.5
* Western Regions: From British Columbia to California, many groups practiced habitat management—such as controlled burning to increase acorn production and tending wild plants—blurring the distinction between foraging and farming.5

Many cultures combined these methods, such as village-based groups that farmed seasonally while also hunting and gathering.14