How did execution methods in Europe change between the Middle Ages and the modern era?

In the Middle Ages, European execution methods were often characterized by extreme cruelty and were frequently conducted as public spectacles intended to serve as deterrents. Common methods during this period included burning at the stake, hanging, drawing and quartering, drowning, and "breaking" on the wheel. These events were public, and the bodies of the executed were often displayed to the community.1

As Europe transitioned into the modern era, the influence of the Enlightenment prompted a significant shift in legal philosophy and practice. The movement sought to limit the scope of capital punishment and move away from the use of torture and exceptionally painful execution methods. By the 19th and 20th centuries, many European nations began to restrict the death penalty, eventually moving toward total abolition. While some jurisdictions adopted more "clinical" methods like lethal injection in the 20th century, the broader trend across Europe was the rejection of capital punishment as incompatible with human rights and human dignity. Public executions were also largely phased out, with England banning the practice in 1868.231