How did colonialism shape early ethnographic fieldwork?

Colonialism was deeply intertwined with the development of early ethnography, shaping both the methods and the objectives of the field. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, many ethnographic accounts were produced by colonial administrators, military personnel, and missionaries rather than professional anthropologists. These individuals often gathered data to facilitate political and social control over colonized regions, frequently framing their work as a way to record "vanishing" indigenous cultures.12

The intellectual framework of the era was also heavily influenced by colonial perspectives. Early cultural anthropology was dominated by unilinear evolutionary theories, which categorized indigenous societies as "primitive" stages of development that Western civilization had supposedly already surpassed. By labeling cultures as "savage" or "barbarous," scholars provided a justification for colonial policies, making it appear morally acceptable to "civilize" these populations rather than acknowledging the harm of forced assimilation.31

While these early accounts provided a vast array of data, they were often biased or misunderstood, as they were filtered through the interests of colonial powers. It was not until the work of figures like Bronisław Malinowski that modern, professional ethnographic fieldwork—characterized by long-term participant-observation—began to emerge as a distinct academic practice.2