How did beliefs about witches who harmed people through thoughts or desires develop in Africa and Melanesia?

In many societies across West and Central Africa and Melanesia, beliefs regarding witches who inflict harm through thoughts or desires developed as part of traditional worldviews that seek to explain misfortune, illness, and death. Unlike practices involving ritual acts or "sympathetic magic"—where harm is enacted through physical objects like hair or nail clippings—these beliefs center on the internal, often involuntary, power of the individual.12

In these regions, witchcraft is frequently perceived as an inherent quality rather than a learned skill. For example, some Melanesian highland peoples have traditionally believed that witches act under the influence of forces beyond their conscious control, preying upon the living to drain their bodily substances. Similarly, various African traditions hold that individuals may be born as witches, sometimes possessing specific internal organs or spiritual entities, such as a python, that compel them to cause harm.12

These concepts reflect a broader cultural understanding where the boundaries between the physical and spiritual worlds are fluid, and interpersonal or social conflicts are often interpreted through the lens of malevolent occult influence. Such beliefs persist today, sometimes exacerbated by social stressors like economic inequality, disease, and rapid cultural change.234