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How did beliefs about witches flying appear in Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas?

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Oil painting The Witches' Sabbath by Francisco de Goya shows a group of figures in dark robes gathered around a crouching person, with eerie creatures flying in a moonlit sky. — Witchcraft *El conjuro* or *Las brujas* (“The Conjuring” or “The Witches”), oil on canvas by Francisco Goya, 1797–98; in the Museo Lázaro Galdiano, Madrid.

Beliefs regarding the ability of witches to fly are not unique to one region but appear in various cultures, often rooted in local folklore and spiritual traditions.

Europe

In early modern Europe (15th–17th centuries), the belief in flying witches was central to the stereotype of the witches’ sabbath. Folklore suggested that witches could travel to these nocturnal gatherings by smearing themselves with special ointments or by riding animals such as goats, rams, dogs, or the iconic broomstick. These ideas were influenced by medieval traditions, which held that the spirits of certain individuals could leave their sleeping bodies to travel to spectral rendezvous.12

Africa, Asia, and the Americas

The concept of flight is a recurring theme in global perceptions of witchcraft:
* Africa: Among the Nyakyusa of Tanzania, there is a traditional belief that witches fly upon pythons.3
* Asia: In parts of South Asia, beliefs in the fantastic abilities of witches, including flight, have been documented.3
* The Americas: Similar notions of witches possessing the power of flight have been recorded in various parts of North America.3

While these beliefs vary significantly by culture, they often reflect a shared human tendency to attribute extraordinary, supernatural capabilities to those perceived as malevolent or anti-social figures.3