How did Russian culture spread into the Caucasus from the 16th century onward?

Russian influence in the Caucasus expanded significantly from the 16th century onward, driven by a combination of strategic military conquest, political alliances, and a self-conceived civilizing mission.12

Early interactions involved marriage alliances and requests for Russian military aid from local rulers against regional rivals. Under Peter I, Russia began direct territorial acquisition, occupying Derbent and Baku in the 1720s. By the late 18th century, the northern Caucasus was designated a Russian province, and the Russian Empire subsequently absorbed Georgia and various khanates through treaties and military victories over Persia and Turkey.1

This expansion faced fierce resistance from mountain tribes, such as the Circassians and the Muslim tribes of Dagestan, who fought protracted conflicts against Russian forces. Following the pacification of these regions by the mid-19th century, the Russian Empire promoted its influence through education and administration, though this also fostered the rise of nationalist and socialist movements among local intellectuals. Ultimately, the region became a focal point for the Russian Empire, which integrated the area into its political and economic sphere, including the development of the oil industry in Baku.1