How did Roman law treat the responsibility of shipowners for passengers' goods?

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Mosaic portrait of Emperor Justinian I with a jeweled crown and halo, from the 6th-century Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy. — Carriage of goods Justinian I, detail of a 6th-century mosaic at the Church of San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy.

In Roman law, the contract of carriage did not exist as a distinct legal form; instead, legal advisers categorized it under frameworks such as deposit or the hire of services and goods.1

However, Roman law established a specific, stringent regulation regarding the liability of shipowners (nautae). These shipowners, alongside innkeepers and stable keepers, were held liable without fault for any destruction of or damage to the goods of their passengers.1

This strict liability was not absolute, as shipowners could be relieved of responsibility if they could prove that the loss was attributable to irresistible force, a concept known as force majeure.1