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How did Paul-Henri Dietrich, baron d’Holbach, defend deterministic materialism?

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Bronze bust of Epicurus with a full beard and draped clothing, displayed on a round inscribed base at the National Archaeological Museum of Naples. — Materialism Epicurus, bronze bust from a Greek original, c. 280–270 bce; in the Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples.

Paul-Henri Dietrich, baron d’Holbach, defended deterministic materialism by arguing that the universe consists entirely of matter and the energy inherent within it. In his influential work, System of Nature, he posited that all phenomena, including human actions, are governed by strict causality.12

His defense relied on the following key principles:

Mechanistic View: He reduced all natural processes to relationships of motion, effectively framing humans as complex machines.2
Denial of Free Will: Consistent with his deterministic framework, he argued that humans are devoid of free will, as every action is the necessary result of prior causes.2
Scientific Basis: He sought to ground his philosophy in the contemporary science of his time, rejecting religion as both untrue and harmful to human morality and reason.21

By framing the world as a purely physical system, d’Holbach championed an uncompromising atheism and a utilitarian approach to morality, where duty is understood as a matter of prudent self-interest.21