How did Marsilius of Padua argue that the state should have authority over the church?

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The Code of Hammurabi diorite stela, with carved figures at the top showing Hammurabi seated with cuneiform inscriptions below. — Political philosophy Diorite stela inscribed with the Code of Hammurabi, 18th century bce.

In his seminal work, Defensor pacis, the Italian philosopher Marsilius of Padua argued for the supremacy of the state by applying Aristotelian principles to develop a secular concept of political authority.1

Marsilius maintained that the primary responsibility of the state is to ensure law, order, and tranquility, which requires the preservation of political unity. To achieve this, he contended that the power of the church hierarchy must be strictly limited. He asserted that all political power and law originate from the people, who possess the inherent right to choose their own rulers.1

Regarding religious governance, Marsilius concluded that the church’s supreme authority over morals and doctrine should not reside in the papacy, but rather in a general council that represents the entire body of believers, including both the clergy and the laity. By subordinating ecclesiastical influence to the collective will of the people and the administrative needs of the state, he sought to protect the civil peace from papal interference.1