How did Karl Marx explain social change through modes of production and class struggle?

Karl Marx explained social change through the theory of historical materialism, which posits that the economic structure of society—the "mode of production"—is the fundamental driver of history.123

Modes of Production and Social Structure

Marx argued that human society is built upon a "real foundation" consisting of two elements:
* Material forces of production: The tools, technology, and raw materials used to produce the means of subsistence.13
* Social relations of production: The division of labor and the social arrangements that regulate how goods are produced and distributed.13

Marx maintained that "it is not the consciousness of men that determines their being, but, on the contrary, their social being that determines their consciousness". When the development of material forces outgrows existing social relations, the current mode of production becomes an impediment to further progress, leading to systemic instability.432

Class Struggle as the Motor of History

Social change occurs through class struggle, as conflicting interests arise from these economic contradictions. In capitalism, for example, the bourgeoisie own the means of production, while the proletariat are forced to sell their labor. Marx viewed this as a continuous process where incompatible elements oppose each other until the existing order is replaced by a more advanced system.1452