How did Julian Steward explain cultural practices as adaptations to environments?

Julian Steward, a central figure in 20th-century anthropology, rejected the simplistic notions of environmental determinism and possibilism. Instead, he founded the theory of cultural ecology to explain how human societies adapt to their surroundings.12

Steward proposed that cultures interact with their environments by adapting features of technology, economic organization, and social structures—such as kinship or religion—to best pursue their livelihoods. Rather than viewing the environment as a rigid determinant or a mere set of limits, he argued that it presents specific problems and opportunities. Consequently, social systems arise from patterns of resource exploitation, which are determined by a group's technological adaptation to their natural environment.21

Because different physical and historical settings require unique adaptations, Steward argued that cultures do not follow a single, uniform path of development. Instead, he described this process as multilinear evolution, where cross-cultural similarities in social change emerge from similar environmental challenges, yet result in diverse social manifestations based on the specific sociocultural features at hand.12