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How did Italy and Germany become nation-states during the 19th century?

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Detail from School of Athens by Raphael — state Plato (center left) and Aristotle, detail from *School of Athens*, fresco by Raphael, 1508–11; in the Stanza della Segnatura, the Vatican. Plato is shown pointing to the heavens and the realm of forms, Aristotle to the earth and the realm of things.

The unification of Italy and Germany into sovereign nation-states during the 19th century was achieved through distinct processes of diplomacy, military conflict, and political maneuvering.

Unification of Italy

Italian unification was driven by a combination of international diplomacy and revolutionary action. Cavour, the prime minister of Piedmont, sought to expel Austrian influence through strategic alliances, notably securing military support from France after the 1858 conference at Plombières. Following successful military campaigns against Austria in 1859 and subsequent plebiscites in central Italian states, the movement gained momentum. Simultaneously, Garibaldi led the Expedition of the Thousand in 1860, conquering the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, which ultimately facilitated the integration of the south into a unified state under Victor Emmanuel II.12

Unification of Germany

German unification was primarily a top-down process orchestrated by Prussia under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck. Rather than emerging from a mass nationalist movement, the German Empire was founded on January 18, 1871, following three decisive wars against Denmark, the Habsburg monarchy, and France. Bismarck utilized the North German Confederation as a foundation, eventually securing agreements with the rulers of southern German states to form a unified empire where Prussian dominance remained central.34