How did French Enlightenment thinkers and Johann Gottfried von Herder differ in their views of culture?

The debate between French Enlightenment thinkers and the German philosopher Johann Gottfried von Herder represents a fundamental tension in cultural anthropology between universalism and particularism.1

French Enlightenment Perspectives

French Enlightenment thinkers emphasized universalism, seeking to identify objective standards of reason and civilization that applied to all humanity. They often evaluated societies based on their progress toward these rational, enlightened ideals. This perspective prioritized a singular, objective standard of human development, which critics later characterized as a form of cultural chauvinism that graded peoples based on their proximity to French standards of rationality.12

Herder’s Particularist View

In contrast, Herder championed the concept of Kultur, which focused on the unique, identity-defining differences of specific peoples and nations (Volk). He argued that each culture possesses a distinct "ethnic soul" (Volksseele) and must be understood and judged within its own historical and social context.13

Herder’s approach introduced cultural relativism and historicism, rejecting the notion that any culture is inferior to another. He believed that a people’s language, traditions, and art are deeply interconnected, forming a unique collective identity that should be preserved rather than measured against external, universal standards.23