How did Amazonian shamans explain and treat illness caused by lost souls or harmful spirits?

In Amazonian and broader South American forest cultures, illness is frequently attributed to the influence of supernatural forces, including harmful spirits or the loss of the soul. Shamans, who serve as healers and intermediaries with the spirit world, employ specific methods to address these conditions:12

• Soul Loss: When a person’s soul leaves their body, causing illness, the shaman must locate and recover the wandering soul to restore the patient’s health.12
• Harmful Spirits and Magic: If illness is caused by a bad spirit, the shaman attempts to overcome the evil influence with the assistance of one or more auxiliary spirits. In cases where sickness is caused by foreign objects—such as stones, leaves, or insects—sent through the black magic of an evildoer, the shaman performs physical interventions including massage, suction, blowing, and fumigation to remove the intrusive substance.12

These practices are often supported by the use of hallucinogens, tobacco, and sacred rattles, which help the shaman enter states of ecstasy to communicate with the spirit realm and perform these miraculous cures.13