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How can a state be held responsible for violating international law?

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Detail from School of Athens by Raphael — state Plato (center left) and Aristotle, detail from *School of Athens*, fresco by Raphael, 1508–11; in the Stanza della Segnatura, the Vatican. Plato is shown pointing to the heavens and the realm of forms, Aristotle to the earth and the realm of things.

Under international law, a state is held responsible for violating its obligations when a breach is attributable to the state itself. This includes actions by internal institutions, entities exercising governmental authority, or persons acting under state direction. States are also liable for private acts if they subsequently adopt them.1

When a state is found internationally responsible, it must provide full reparation for any injury caused. This typically involves restitution, compensation, or satisfaction (such as an apology).1

Disputes regarding these violations are often settled through peaceful mechanisms, including negotiation, mediation, or binding judicial settlement. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) serves as the principal judicial organ for resolving such disputes, provided the states involved have consented to its jurisdiction. While the ICJ lacks direct enforcement powers, the UN Security Council may take measures to give effect to its judgments. Additionally, in cases of serious breaches of peremptory norms, all states are obligated to cooperate in ending the situation.2341