Why were Spanish Armada ships less effective at long-range gun battles than English ships?

The Spanish Armada was less effective at long-range gun battles primarily due to differences in ship design, armament, and tactical doctrine.

English ships were designed as faster, more maneuverable vessels that prioritized long-range artillery. They were equipped with a greater number of heavy guns, including culverins—longer, more accurate weapons capable of firing at a distance. This allowed the English to utilize "standoff" tactics, bombarding the Spanish fleet from outside the effective range of the enemy's weapons.123

In contrast, the Spanish fleet relied on heavier, shorter-range cannon. Their tactical doctrine was centered on traditional naval warfare, which emphasized closing the distance to force boarding actions, where the superiority of Spanish infantry could be decisive. Consequently, the Spanish ships were not optimized for long-range gunnery, and their gunners were neither equipped with the same long-range weaponry nor trained to reload their heavy guns during active combat. This left them vulnerable to the English strategy of harassment and bombardment, as they were unable to effectively return fire at long range.12