Which materials were used to build stepwells in India?

Stepwells in India were constructed using a variety of materials, primarily depending on the region, the era, and the resources available to the patron. These subterranean structures were commonly built from masonry, rubble, or brick.1

Many of the more elaborate stepwells, particularly those found in the western state of Gujarat, featured extensive stone construction. These sites often incorporated intricate stone carvings and were supported by column-based pavilions. The structural integrity of these deep excavations was frequently reinforced with stone lining and massive support walls to withstand the pressure of the surrounding earth.1

While the choice of material varied, the fundamental design required careful engineering to ensure the structure could function as both a water source and a stable architectural monument.1