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How were the earliest gunpowder weapons fired?

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The earliest gunpowder weapons were fired by applying a flame or heat source to a small opening known as a touchhole drilled into the breech of the weapon.1

In these early designs, the touchhole was filled with fine powder, which served as a primer for the main charge. To ignite this powder, gunners typically used devices such as torches, glowing tinder, or heated iron rods. Often, a train of powder was laid to the main charge to provide the firer with enough time to reach a safe distance before the weapon discharged.1

By the mid-15th century, the development of slow match—a cord or twine soaked in potassium nitrate and dried—provided a more controlled, smoldering flame that became a standard tool for artillerists for several centuries. Later, mechanisms like the wheel lock were developed to generate sparks mechanically, though these were primarily used for small arms rather than large artillery.23