How is niobium pentoxide converted into metallic niobium?

Niobium pentoxide is converted into metallic niobium primarily through an aluminothermic reduction process, which produces impure metallic globules known as reguli. These reguli can be further purified into ingots using electron-beam melting or processed into niobium powder through a hydriding and dehydriding cycle.1

Alternatively, niobium can be obtained by the reduction of fluoro complexes using a highly reactive metal, such as sodium, or through the electrolysis of fused salts. Once the metal is in powder form, it is often consolidated and further purified via sintering in a vacuum at high temperatures, which helps remove impurities and improve the metal's mechanical properties.21