Key People of the Ottoman Empire

Osman I was born about 1258. He is regarded as the founder of the Ottoman dynasty and empire. His father had established a principality centered at Sögüt in western Anatolia. With Sögüt as their base, Osman and the Muslim warriors under his command waged a slow and stubborn conflict against the Byzantines, who sought to defend their territories in the hinterland of the Asiatic shore opposite Constantinople (now Istanbul). Osman gradually extended his control over several former Byzantine fortresses, which provided the Ottomans with a strong base to lay siege to Bursa and other cities and towns in northwestern Anatolia. Osman died in 1324 or 1326. He was succeeded by his son Orhan, who finally captured Bursa from Byzantine control.

Orhan’s son Murad I conquered Thrace, to the northwest of Constantinople, in 1361. He moved his capital to Adrianople (now Edirne, Turkey). Besides capturing cities, Murad worked to incorporate European landowners into the rapidly expanding Ottoman Empire. He retained local native rulers who in return accepted him as overlord. The local rulers paid annual tributes to the empire and provided people for the Ottoman army when required. The policy of keeping the local rulers in place enabled the Ottomans generally to avoid local resistance. The empire could assure the local rulers and their subjects that their lives, properties, traditions, and positions would be preserved if they peacefully accepted Ottoman rule. It also allowed the Ottomans to govern the newly conquered areas without building up a vast administrative system of their own or maintaining soldiers there.

Mehmed II was the Ottoman sultan in 1444–46 and again in 1451–81. His father, Murad II, abdicated in his favor when Mehmed was 12 but reclaimed the throne two years later in the aftermath of a Christian Crusade. Mehmed regained the throne when his father died and began to plan the conquest of Constantinople, the feat for which he is most renowned. In 1453 he captured the city and undertook returning it to its previous level of grandeur. In the next 25 years he conquered large sections of the Balkans. Under his reign criminal and civil laws were codified in one body of law.

Bayezid II consolidated Ottoman rule in the Balkans, Anatolia, and the eastern Mediterranean. Bayezid was the elder son of Mehmed II. On the death of his father in 1481, his brother Cem contested the succession. Bayezid, supported by a strong faction of court officials at Constantinople, succeeded in taking the throne. During Bayezid’s reign Herzegovina came under direct Ottoman control, and the Ottoman hold over the Crimea and Anatolia was strengthened. He fought the Ṣafavid dynasty in the east, the Mamlūk dynasty in the south, and the Venetians in the west. At home he built mosques, colleges, hospitals, and bridges and supported jurists, scholars, and poets. He abdicated in favor of his son, Selim I, a month before his death in 1512.

Süleyman I became sultan of the Ottoman Empire after serving as a provincial governor under his grandfather Bayezid II and his father, Selim I. Süleyman immediately began leading campaigns against the Christians, taking Belgrade (1521) and Rhodes (1522–23). At the Battle of Mohács (1526) he broke the military strength of Hungary. In 1529 he laid siege to Vienna but failed to capture it. Further campaigns in Hungary (1541 and 1543) resulted in the Ottomans securing territory in the region along the middle Danube. Iraq and eastern Anatolia were captured during the first of his three campaigns (1534–35) against the Ṣafavid dynasty; his second (1548–49) brought conquests in eastern Anatolia around Lake Van; but his third (1554–55) was unsuccessful. His navy controlled the Mediterranean Sea. He built mosques, bridges, and aqueducts and surrounded himself with great poets and legal scholars. His reign is considered a high point of Ottoman civilization.

Selim III (ruled 1789–1807) inherited the Ottoman throne during a losing war with Austria and Russia (1787–92), with whom he later signed treaties. Napoleon I’s invasion of Egypt in 1798 drove Selim into an alliance with Britain and Russia, but, impressed with Napoleon’s successes, he switched sides in 1806. At home he attempted tax and land reform and established a European-style military corps, but, unable to enforce his reforms, he eventually rescinded them. He was overthrown and was strangled on the orders of his successor, Mustafa IV.

Abdülhamid II was sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1876 to 1909. After promulgating the first Ottoman constitution (1876), he suspended it 14 months later and ruled thereafter as a despot. Discontent with his absolutist rule and resentment over European intervention in the Balkans resulted in Abdülhamid’s eventual overthrow by the group known as the Young Turks. Consisting of college students and dissident soldiers, the group succeeded in 1908 in forcing Abdülhamid to reinstate the 1876 constitution and recall the legislature. The Young Turks deposed the sultan the following year, reorganized the government, and began modernizing and industrializing Turkish society.

A soldier and politician in the Ottoman Empire, Enver Paşa was one of the Young Turks who deposed the Ottoman sultan Abdülhamid in 1909. Paşa later served as chief of staff of the Ottoman army in the Second Balkan War (1913) and as minister of war during World War I (1914–18). A rival of Atatürk in the postwar period, he unsuccessfully sought Soviet help to overthrow him. The Soviets permitted Paşa to help organize the Turkic and Muslim Central Asian republics, but he joined rebels against the Soviet Union and was killed fighting the Red Army.