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Why does the swallowtail butterfly Papilio dardanus have several female color forms?

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Müllerian mimicry: butterflies — mimicry *Heliconius* butterflies demonstrating Müllerian mimicry, a form of mimicry where one or more species exhibit closely similar warning systems. In this case, wing patterning and coloration among the species appear very similar.

The African swallowtail butterfly Papilio dardanus exhibits multiple female color forms as a survival strategy driven by diversifying selection. Because P. dardanus is edible to birds, females have evolved to mimic various species of noxious, inedible butterflies—primarily from the genera Danaus or Amauris—to avoid predation.12

This phenomenon is a classic example of Batesian mimicry. In different geographic localities, the females mimic the specific noxious species present in that area, leading to the existence of several distinct polymorphic forms. While males retain a consistent yellow and black pattern across their range, the females' appearance is controlled by primary genes and modifier genes, which restrict the color patterns to those that effectively resemble local toxic models. By appearing as a dangerous or unpalatable species, the butterflies deceive predators and significantly increase their chances of survival.12