How does speech act theory explain meaning through actions such as promising requesting and warning?

Speech act theory, developed by J.L. Austin and refined by John Searle, explains meaning by focusing on how language is used to perform social actions rather than merely describing states of affairs. This approach rejects the idea that meaning is limited to literal, empirically verifiable statements, arguing instead that the meaning of an expression is defined by the rules governing its use in specific contexts.123

Actions like promising, requesting, and warning are categorized as illocutionary acts—acts performed in the act of speaking. Searle classified these into specific types:14
* Directives (e.g., requests): Aim to get the hearer to perform an action.15
* Commissives (e.g., promises): Commit the speaker to a future course of action.15

These acts are defined by specific conditions, such as the speaker's intentions, the hearer's preferences, and the institutional setting. For instance, a promise requires the speaker to intend to fulfill an obligation, while the success of a declaration (like christening a ship) depends on the speaker's authority and appropriate circumstances. Ultimately, meaning is understood through the "illocutionary force" of an utterance within a social context.1534