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How do genes and DNA influence an organism’s traits?

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Vaccine development — genetic engineering The generation of vaccines relies heavily on techniques in genetic engineering.

Genes and DNA serve as the fundamental hereditary material that dictates an organism's characteristics by providing the instructions for building and operating the body.1

The process by which these instructions influence traits involves two main stages:
* Transcription and Translation: DNA contains sequences of nucleotides that act as a code. Through translation, the information in a gene is used to direct the synthesis of specific proteins.23
* Protein Function: Once synthesized, these proteins fold into specific three-dimensional shapes. This shape determines their function—whether they act as enzymes to catalyze metabolic reactions or as structural components that define physical traits like body form or eye color.43

However, genes do not act in isolation. An organism's final traits are the result of an interaction between its genotype and the environment. While some traits are largely determined by heredity, others—such as height or weight—are significantly influenced by environmental factors like nutrition and climate. Ultimately, both nature and nurture are essential for the expression of every attribute.45