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How did the seventh cholera pandemic spread from Indonesia to Africa and Latin America?

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A woman in a pink dress receives medical treatment from nurses administering an IV at a crowded hospital in Saint-Marc, Haiti. — cholera A woman with cholera being treated by nurses at St. Nicholas Hospital in Saint-Marc, Haiti, 2010.

The seventh cholera pandemic, which began in 1961 on the island of Celebes in Indonesia, was driven by the El Tor biotype of Vibrio cholerae. Unlike the classical biotype, the El Tor strain is notably hardy, allowing it to survive in aquatic environments for extended periods. Furthermore, because many infected individuals experience only mild or no symptoms, they are more likely to travel, facilitating the rapid, long-distance transmission of the disease across continents.12

Following its emergence in Indonesia, the pandemic spread throughout Asia during the 1960s before moving westward to the Middle East and eventually reaching Africa. In 1991, the disease appeared unexpectedly in Peru, marking its arrival in South America after a century-long absence. From there, it spread to neighboring countries including Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, and Chile, before moving northward into Central America and Mexico. This global expansion was significantly aided by the reduction of barriers to international commerce and personal travel.12