How did the Permian extinction affect insects?

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Line graph showing the number of marine animal families from the Precambrian era to the present, with illustrations of key groups such as trilobites, ammonoids, marine reptiles, and diatoms. The graph highlights major extinction events and a rise to 1,900 living families today. — Permian extinction The diversity of marine animal families since late Precambrian time. The data for the curve comprise only those families that are reliably preserved in the fossil record; the 1,900 value for living families also includes those families rarely preserved as fossils. The several pronounced dips in the curve correspond to major mass-extinction events. The most catastrophic extinction took place at the end of the Permian Period.

During the Permian Period, insects underwent rapid evolution and diversification as they adapted to new habitats and formed specialized associations with plants. At their peak during this period, Permian insects included at least 23 distinct orders.12

However, the Permian extinction—the largest mass extinction in Earth's history—had a devastating impact on these populations. Numerous families of insects met their demise during this period of global crisis. Of the 23 orders present during the Permian, 11 became extinct. This loss was part of a broader, catastrophic decline in biodiversity that affected both marine and terrestrial life as environmental conditions shifted toward extreme heat and aridity.321