How did metallurgy, alchemy, and astronomy contribute to the development of physical science?

Metallurgy, alchemy, and astronomy were foundational to the development of physical science, providing the empirical techniques, theoretical frameworks, and mathematical rigor necessary for modern scientific inquiry.12

• Metallurgy: Originally a craft, metallurgy evolved into a scientific discipline by applying chemical thermodynamics and kinetics. The development of metallography and microscopic techniques allowed scientists to understand the relationship between atomic structure and material properties, bridging the gap between traditional metalworking and modern materials science.3
• Alchemy: While recognized today as a pseudoscience, alchemy provided a vital tradition of experimental experience with substances. Its secretive practices involving heat and liquid mixtures laid the groundwork for pharmacology and modern chemistry. By the 17th century, the transition from alchemical traditions to mechanical philosophy helped establish chemistry as a rigorous, empirical science.14
• Astronomy: As the first natural science to achieve high predictive ability, astronomy demonstrated the power of mathematics in describing the physical world. It profoundly influenced the scientific method and led to fundamental breakthroughs, such as Isaac Newton’s laws of motion and gravity, which remain cornerstones of physical science.25