How did ancient Chinese, Hindu, and Mediterranean civilizations use medicinal plants and minerals?

Ancient Chinese, Hindu, and Mediterranean civilizations utilized a wide array of plants, animals, and minerals to treat ailments, often documenting these substances in early medical texts.

Ancient Chinese Medicine

Early Chinese practitioners focused on restoring the balance of yin and yang within the body. A foundational herbal compendium attributed to the legendary emperor Shennong described the antifever properties of chang shan (Dichroa febrifuga), which contains antimalarial alkaloids. Another significant plant, ma huang, was used for various purposes and contains ephedrine, a compound still used today for cold and allergy symptoms. Later, Li Shizhen compiled the Bencao gangmu, an extensive record of nearly 1,900 drugs.12

Hindu Medicine

Indian medicine, or Ayurveda, relied heavily on indigenous plants, with physicians like Charaka and Sushruta cataloging hundreds of medicinal species. While vegetable drugs were primary, they also employed animal products and minerals such as sulfur, arsenic, and lead. Treatment often began with dietetic measures, followed by the "five procedures," including emetics, purgatives, and enemas.3

Mediterranean Civilizations

In the Mediterranean, Egyptian medical papyri provided early instructions for using plants to treat injuries and illnesses, such as using senna and castor oil for constipation. Greek physicians, notably Pedanius Dioscorides, documented mineral and plant preparations in De materia medica. While many mineral substances like arsenic and mercury were tested, they were often found to be too toxic for safe use. The physician Galen emphasized the importance of drug purity and the selection of specific botanical varieties.24