How can stable isotopes be changed into radioactive isotopes through nuclear reactions?

Stable isotopes can be converted into radioactive isotopes through nuclear reactions, which alter the structure of atomic nuclei to create unstable combinations of protons and neutrons.12

This process, often referred to as artificial transmutation, typically involves bombarding a stable target nucleus with energetic particles. Common methods include:3

• Neutron Bombardment: Stable isotopes can capture neutrons, a process often utilized in nuclear reactors to produce radioisotopes for medical, industrial, and research applications. This is also the basis for neutron activation analysis, where materials are bombarded with neutrons to create radioactive atoms whose emissions identify the original elements.456
• Charged Particle Bombardment: Stable isotopes can be bombarded with alpha particles, protons, or other heavy ions. These particles must possess sufficient energy to overcome the electrostatic repulsion of the target nucleus and interact via the strong nuclear force.13

According to the compound-nucleus model, these reactions often occur in two stages: the formation of a highly excited, unstable intermediate nucleus, followed by its subsequent decay into a new product nucleus and the ejection of smaller particles.7