How can a mother mouse’s treatment of her pups affect the pups’ later aggression?

In the context of aggressive behaviour, research indicates that a mother mouse’s treatment of her pups significantly influences their adult behavior. Specifically, mouse pups that are handled roughly by their mothers are more likely to exhibit increased aggression as adults.1

This phenomenon is often linked to the genetic background of the mother. Female mice from aggressive strains tend to handle their offspring roughly, creating an environment that promotes aggression. Consequently, these pups are affected by a combination of inherited genetic predispositions and an early-life environment that encourages aggressive tendencies.1

Ultimately, this illustrates that adult behavior is not solely the result of instinct or genetics, but rather the product of a complex, continuous interaction between an animal's inherited genes and its pre- and postnatal environment.1