How are radioactive isotopes produced artificially?

Artificial radioactive isotopes are produced by altering the atomic structure of stable elements through high-energy bombardment. The primary methods include:1

• Neutron Bombardment: Stable elements are exposed to intense streams of neutrons, often within a nuclear reactor. Through a process of neutron capture, the target nuclei absorb neutrons, which can transform them into radioactive isotopes.12
• Particle Accelerators: These devices accelerate charged particles—such as protons, alpha particles, or heavier ions—to high velocities. When these particles strike a target material, they can induce nuclear reactions that create new, often unstable, radioactive isotopes.32
• Nuclear Fission: Radioactive isotopes are also generated as by-products of nuclear fission within reactors, where heavy nuclei are split into smaller, radioactive fragments.45

These techniques allow scientists to synthesize a wide range of radionuclides for use in nuclear medicine, research, and industrial applications.134