History of Cancer: A Timeline

The history of cancer research and treatment is marked by centuries of scientific inquiry and medical innovation. From the earliest written descriptions of tumors in ancient texts to the sophisticated molecular therapies of today, each milestone reflects a deeper understanding of the complexity of cancer and the relentless pursuit of cures. Advances in surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and, more recently, targeted therapy and immunotherapy have transformed cancer from a largely fatal diagnosis into a disease that can often be managed or even prevented. This timeline traces the pivotal discoveries, technological breakthroughs, and clinical achievements that have shaped modern approaches to cancer diagnosis and treatment, highlighting the progress that continues to redefine possibilities for patients worldwide.

Ancient to early modern period

• c. 3000 bce—Earliest recorded cancer cases: The Edwin Smith papyrus, thought to be a copy of an ancient Egyptian treatise on surgery dating to 3000 bce, described tumors treated by cauterization.
• c. 400 bce—Hippocrates’ coinage of the term karkinos: Ancient Greek physician Hippocrates introduced the word karkinos, meaning “crab,” to describe tumors, likely in reference to their appearance as they metastasize (spread).
• 2nd century ce—Galen’s proposal of black bile as cause of incurable cancer: Greek philosopher and physician Galen proposed that cancer arises from excess black bile. His theory would influence the treatment of cancer for centuries.

Foundations: 18th–19th century

• 1761—Anatomical pathology: Autopsies performed by Italian anatomist and pathologist Giovanni Battista Morgagni, particularly those detailed in his 1761 work De Sedibus et Causis Morborum per Anatomen Indagatis (The Seats and Causes of Diseases Investigated by Anatomy), linked cancer to anatomical changes in organs, providing novel insight into the pathology of cancer.
• Mid-1800s—Surgical advances: Before the 19th century, surgical removal or cauterization of tumors was the only available treatment. The development of anesthesia in 1846 and antisepsis in 1867 revolutionized surgery, making more-intricate and extensive tumor removal possible.
• 1850s and 1860s—Cell theory: With Die Cellularpathologie (1858; Cellular Pathology) and Die krankhaften Geschwülste (1863–67; “The Pathological Tumors”), two major compilations of lectures on the origins of disease, German pathologist Rudolf Virchow effectively grounded cancer in cell biology, demonstrating that tumors are made of cells, akin to healthy tissues, and that these cells arise from healthy cells. His cell theory helped overturn centuries-old erroneous theories about the origins of cancer.
• 1895—First use of X-rays: The discovery in 1895 of X-rays by physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen not only opened the way for the development of imaging techniques for cancer detection but also led to the realization that these rays could be used to treat cancer, which formed a foundation for radiation therapy.

Advances: Early to mid-20th century

• 1896–1903—Discovery of radioactivity: The discovery of radioactivity and its properties, particularly its ability to damage or destroy living tissue, in the late 1890s and early 1900s by Polish-born French physicist Marie Curie and French physicist Henri Becquerel provided a basis for its later use in cancer treatment.
• 1915—Discovery of carcinogens: In 1915, Japanese researchers Katsusaburo Yamagiwa and Koichi Ichikawa induced cancer in rabbits by applying coal tar to their skin. The discovery led to the identification of numerous other carcinogens and marked a crucial advance in the understanding of causes of cancer.
• 1940s—Introduction of Pap test: The Pap test (or Pap smear), developed by Greek-born American physician George Papanicolaou, transformed the fight against cervical cancer by enabling the detection of cell changes in the cervix before they develop into invasive cancer.
• 1940s—First chemotherapeutic agents: The first chemotherapeutic agents were nitrogen mustards and folic acid antagonists, introduced in the 1940s. The use of nitrogen mustards, derived from chemical warfare agents, marked the beginning of chemotherapy as a treatment for cancer.
• 1950s—Expansion of chemotherapy: Through the 1950s the number of chemotherapeutic agents developed to fight cancer expanded dramatically. This period included the introduction of such drugs as methotrexate and 6-mercaptopurine as well as combination regimens.

Developments: Late 20th century

• 1960s—Clinical adoption of mammography: Although originally developed in 1913, clinical uptake of mammography as a means of screening for breast cancer began in earnest in the mid-1960s, when machines dedicated to the procedure gained acceptance. By the 1970s and ’80s the use of mammography would become widespread, facilitating early detection and significant reductions in breast cancer mortality rates.
• 1968—Bone marrow transplant for leukemia: The advent of bone marrow transplant for leukemia, a groundbreaking development pioneered by American physician E. Donnall Thomas, markedly improved prognosis. The procedure rendered the disease—and related hematologic malignancies—potentially treatable and, in some cases, curable.
• 1970s—Discovery of oncogenes: The discovery of oncogenes, genetic material that carries the ability to induce cancer, was a monumental breakthrough that reshaped modern understanding of cancer and paved the way for significant advancements in its diagnosis and treatment.
• 1994 and 1995—Discovery of BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes: The discovery of the BRCA (breast cancer) genes—BRCA1 and BRCA2—in 1994 and 1995, respectively, provided the first concrete link between inherited genetic mutations and an increased risk of developing certain cancers. The breakthrough helped establish the concept of hereditary cancer syndromes and paved the way for identifying other such genes.
• 1998—Beginning of targeted therapy era: The year 1998 marked a pivotal moment in cancer treatment, with the introduction of trastuzumab (Herceptin) for the treatment of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)-positive breast cancer. The approval of trastuzumab by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) that year ushered in the era of targeted therapy, in which a drug or other substance is developed to identify and attack specific cancer cells while minimizing damage to healthy cells.

Innovations: 21st century

• 2003—Human Genome Project completion: The completion of the Human Genome Project had a significant impact on cancer research and treatment by providing a comprehensive understanding of the human genome. This knowledge not only allowed specific genes and mutations to be associated with cancer development but also opened new avenues for personalized medicine.
• 2011—First immune checkpoint inhibitor: The first immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI), ipilimumab, was approved in 2011, introducing immunotherapy as a new pillar of cancer treatment and demonstrating that the immune system could be directed to recognize and attack cancer cells. This breakthrough gave rise to the burgeoning field of immunotherapy.
• 2017—Approval of CAR T-cell therapy: Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy, a type of immunotherapy in which a patient’s T cells are modified to recognize and attack cancer cells, was approved in 2017. CAR T-cell therapy revolutionized cancer treatment by offering a new approach to fighting certain hematologic cancers, particularly leukemia and lymphoma.