David Kellogg Lewis

David Kellogg Lewis (born September 28, 1941, Oberlin, Ohio, U.S.—died October 14, 2001, Princeton, New Jersey) was an American philosopher who, at the time of his death, was considered by many to be the leading figure in Anglo-American philosophy (see analytic philosophy).

Both Lewis’s father and his mother taught government at Oberlin College. Lewis studied philosophy at Swarthmore College (B.A., 1962) and Harvard University, where he received an M.A. in 1964 and a Ph.D. in 1967. His dissertation on linguistic convention, written under the supervision of Willard Van Orman Quine (1908–2000), was published as Convention: A Philosophical Study in 1969. Lewis taught at the University of California, Los Angeles, from 1966 to 1970 and thereafter at Princeton University. He died suddenly and unexpectedly at age 60, at the height of his intellectual powers.

In introductory essays written for two collections of his papers, Lewis identified several “recurring themes” that unify his work. Four of these themes are particularly important:

1. There are possible but nonactual things. Nonactual things do not differ from actual things in any fundamentally important way; nonactual human beings, for example, are very much like actual human beings. The largest and most inclusive nonactual things, which are not parts of any larger nonactual things, are nonactual worlds. The actual world, the object that is normally called the cosmos or the universe, and the many nonactual worlds constitute the realm of “possible worlds.”

2. Temporal relations are strongly analogous to spatial relations. Just as the far side of the Moon is elsewhere in space (relative to an observer on Earth), so things in the past or the future are “elsewhere in time” but are no less real for being so. Moreover, relations between actual and nonactual things are strongly analogous to temporal relations and therefore to spatial relations. All things, actual and nonactual, inhabit “logical space,” and nonactual things are “elsewhere” in this space but are no less real for being so. Actual human beings correctly call the world they inhabit “actual” because it is the world they inhabit. Nonactual human beings likewise correctly call the worlds they inhabit “actual” for the same reason. The term actual, therefore, is strongly analogous to terms like here and now: in each case the referent of the term varies depending on the context (place, time, or world) in which it is uttered.

3. Physical science, if successful, will provide a complete description of the actual world.

4. Given any possible world in which every inhabitant of that world is in space and time (as is the case in the actual world), everything true about that world and its inhabitants supervenes on—is determined or settled by—the distribution of “local qualities” in space and time in that world. (A local quality is a property or characteristic that can be instantiated at a specific point in space and time. Although it is ultimately up to physics to determine what local qualities there are, two likely candidates are electric charge and temperature.) Theme 3 implies that all local qualities in the actual world are physical qualities. Lewis considered it an open question whether there are nonphysical local qualities in other possible worlds.

Two important examples of local-quality supervenience are the mental states of human beings (and other sentient creatures) and causal relations between physical objects or events. Given a human being who is thinking a certain thought at a certain moment in the actual world, his “counterpart” in a nonactual world that is a perfect local-quality duplicate of the actual world will be thinking the very same thought at the corresponding moment in the history of the duplicate world. Likewise, the causal relations that hold between any two things in the actual world also hold between their counterparts in any local-quality duplicate world. Because the latter conclusion is reminiscent of the theory of causation propounded by the Enlightenment philosopher David Hume (1711–76)—who held that causal relations consist of nothing more than the “constant conjunction” in experience of certain kinds of objects or events—Lewis referred to theme 4 as the doctrine of Humean supervenience.

According to Lewis, Humean supervenience faces only one serious challenge: objective chance, or propensity, a notion that Lewis thought was indispensable to science. Objective chance is an interpretation of probability as an objective tendency of a physical situation to produce an outcome of a certain kind. It contrasts primarily with subjective probability, which refers to the degree of confidence that a rational agent should have in the truth of a given proposition (see probability theory). If there is such a thing as objective chance, then Humean supervenience implies that it is explainable in terms of the distribution of local qualities in the world in question. The problem is that there appear to be instances of objective chance that are not interpretable in this way. Consider, for example, a fair coin—one that has an equal chance of landing heads or tails if tossed. Because the coin is fair, the objective chance of its landing heads on any given toss is 1/2. Nevertheless, it is possible (though exceedingly unlikely) that a fair coin tossed 1,000 times will land heads each time. Therefore, there is at least one possible world in which this situation obtains. How is it possible to explain the fairness of this coin—the fact that the objective chance of its landing heads is 1/2—in terms of the distribution of local qualities in this world? If the distribution implies anything relevant to objective chance, it implies that the objective chance of the coin’s landing heads on any given toss is 1/1 (or very close to it). One is forced to conclude that objective chance cannot be explained in terms of the distribution of local qualities and, therefore, that Humean supervenience is false. After many years of thought, Lewis finally arrived at what he considered a satisfactory solution to this problem; the details were presented in a paper titled “Humean Supervenience Debugged” (1994).

Lewis regarded his doctrine of nonactual things and worlds as a “philosopher’s paradise,” and much of his work on particular philosophical problems (in metaphysics, the philosophy of language, the philosophy of mind, and epistemology) presupposed the reality of nonactual things. Few philosophers have accepted this presupposition, however; most have regarded it as simply unbelievable. Nevertheless, almost all philosophers who have studied Lewis’s work have concluded that there is very little of it that cannot be detached from his doctrine of the nonactual and restated in terms of what they would consider a more plausible theory. (Lewis, it should be noted, devoted considerable effort to the attempt to show that all theories of the nonactual other than his own are unworkable.) Once so detached, they agree, Lewis’s work is uniformly of great value.

One example of such work is Lewis’s account of counterfactual conditionals—statements of the form If X had/had not been the case, Y would/would not have happened. According to Lewis, a counterfactual conditional such as “If the river had been covered with ice, Napoleon would have crossed it” is true just in case: in all possible worlds closest to the actual world in which the river is covered with ice—in all the worlds that are as much like the actual world as possible, given that the river is covered with ice in them—Napoleon (or, strictly speaking, Napoleon’s counterpart) crosses the river. This theory has very important philosophical consequences; for one thing, it generates a very plausible formal logic of counterfactual conditionals. Accordingly, many philosophers have been happy to adopt Lewis’s formulation of the truth-conditions of counterfactual conditionals while reconceiving possible worlds as something other than really existing universes elsewhere in logical space—e.g., as abstract objects.

Students of Lewis’s work would agree that its true significance is very difficult to convey in a brief and general discussion. Lewis applied himself to a wide variety of philosophical problems and made important—sometimes groundbreaking—contributions to a number of fields. The topics on which he wrote include, in addition to those mentioned above, analyticity (see analytic proposition), causation, personal identity over time, freedom of the will (see determinism), the seemingly paradoxical consequences of decision theory, time’s arrow (i.e., the “directed” nature of time), the possibility of time travel, the nature of mental states and mental content, the semantics of statements in the first person, perception and hallucination, the relation between formal and natural languages, truth in fiction, existence and nonexistence, the nature of mathematical objects, universals, and the analysis of knowledge. Only by studying Lewis’s work in detail can one appreciate the depth and originality of his thought.