Bollinger decisions

Bollinger decisions, pair of cases addressing the issue of affirmative action in which the U.S. Supreme Court ruled on June 23, 2003, that the undergraduate admissions policy of the University of Michigan violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution (Gratz v. Bollinger) and that the admissions policy of the University of Michigan Law School did not (Grutter v. Bollinger).

In 1995 and 1997, respectively, Jennifer Gratz and Patrick Hamacher, both of whom were white, were denied admission to the University of Michigan’s School of Literature, Science, and the Arts (LSA) despite being qualified or well-qualified according to the university’s academic standards. The two filed a class-action suit alleging racial discrimination in violation of the equal protection clause and Title VI of the Civil Rights Act (1964), which assures nondiscrimination in the distribution of funds under federally assisted programs. The admissions policy then used by the LSA, which was aimed at achieving racial diversity within the student body, automatically awarded points to candidates whose race was African American, Hispanic, or Native American. In Gratz v. Bollinger, the court ruled by a 6–3 majority that the LSA’s use of race or ethnicity in its admissions policy was not “narrowly tailored” and thus too closely approximated the racial quotas that the court had determined were inconsistent with the equal protection clause in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978); see Bakke decision. The court’s opinion in Gratz was written by Chief Justice William Rehnquist.

In 1997 Barbara Grutter, who was white, was denied admission to the University of Michigan Law School despite being well-qualified according to the school’s academic standards; she then filed suit alleging violation of the equal protection clause and Title VI. The admissions policy then used by the school took the race of the candidate into account but did not grant an automatic and significant advantage to certain candidates on the basis of race or ethnicity. In Grutter v. Bollinger, the court ruled by a 5–4 majority that the school’s admissions policy, unlike that of the LSA, did not violate the equal protection clause or Title VI because it used race in a “narrowly tailored” and “holistic” manner within a system of highly individualized interviews, treating race or ethnicity as merely a “‘plus’ in a particular applicant’s file,” as recommended by Justice Lewis F. Powell in his concurring opinion in Bakke. The court’s opinion in Grutter was written by Sandra Day O’Connor.

The admissions policy approved in Grutter became illegal in Michigan in 2006, after voters approved a state constitutional amendment banning discrimination or preferential treatment “on the basis of race, sex, color, ethnicity, or national origin in the operation of public employment, public education, or public contracting.” The Supreme Court upheld the amendment as it applied to school admissions policies in Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action (2014).

In 2022 the Supreme Court agreed to hear two cases during its October 2022 term involving a challenge to Grutter v. Bollinger: Students for Fair Admissions, Inc. v. President and Fellows of Harvard College and Students for Fair Admissions, Inc. v. University of North Carolina. In both cases the plaintiff argued that the Grutter Court’s ruling was “grievously wrong” and should be overturned because it permitted intentional racial discrimination in college and university admissions. The plaintiff also asked the Court to find that the admissions policy of Harvard violated Title VI of the Civil Rights Act (which prohibits racial discrimination by institutions that receive federal funding) and that the policy of the University of North Carolina (UNC) violated both Title VI and the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. In its decision, the Court’s conservative majority held (6–3) that the admissions policies of both Harvard and UNC violated the equal protection clause.