Spitzer Space Telescope

Spitzer Space Telescope, U.S. satellite, the fourth and last of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration fleet of “Great Observatories” satellites. It studied the cosmos at infrared wavelengths. The Spitzer observatory began operating in 2003 and spent more than 16 years gathering information on the origin, evolution, and composition of planets and smaller bodies, stars, galaxies, and the universe as a whole. It was named in honour of Lyman Spitzer, Jr., an American astrophysicist who in a seminal 1946 paper foresaw the power of astronomical telescopes operating in space.

The Spitzer observatory was launched on August 25, 2003, by a Delta II rocket. To remove the spacecraft from Earth’s thermal radiation effects, it was placed into a heliocentric, or solar, orbit with a period of revolution that causes it to drift away from Earth at a rate of 0.1 astronomical unit (15 million km, or 10 million miles) per year. This orbit differed radically from the low Earth orbits used by Spitzer’s sister Great Observatories—the Hubble Space Telescope, the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, and the Chandra X-ray Observatory.

The satellite was a little over 4 metres (13 feet) tall and weighed about 900 kg (2,000 pounds). It was built around an all-beryllium 85-cm (33-inch) primary mirror that focused infrared light on three instruments: a general-purpose near-infrared camera, a spectrograph sensitive to mid-infrared wavelengths, and an imaging photometer taking measurements in three far-infrared bands. Together the instruments covered a wavelength range of 3 to 180 micrometres. These instruments exceeded those flown in previous infrared space observatories by using as their detectors large-format arrays with tens of thousands of pixels.

To reduce interference caused by thermal radiation from the environment and from their own components, infrared space observatories require cryogenic cooling, typically to temperatures as low as 5 K (−268 °C, or −450 °F). Spitzer’s solar orbit simplified the satellite’s cryogenic system by taking it away from the heat of Earth. Much of the satellite’s own heat was radiated into the cold vacuum of space, so that only a small amount of precious liquid helium cryogen was needed to maintain the telescope at its operating temperature of 5–15 K (−268 to −258 °C, or −450 to −432 °F).

The most striking results from Spitzer’s observations concerned extrasolar planets. Since the central stars around which those planets revolve heat the planets to some 1,000 K (700 °C, or 1,300 °F), the planets themselves produced enough infrared radiation for Spitzer to easily detect them. Spitzer determined the temperature and the atmospheric structure, composition, and dynamics of several extrasolar planets. Spitzer also observed the transits of the seven Earth-sized planets in the TRAPPIST-1 system, three of which are in the star’s habitable zone, the distance from a star where liquid water can survive on a planet’s surface.

Spitzer also detected infrared radiation from sources so far away that in effect it looked almost 13 billion years back in time to when the universe was less than 1 billion years old. Spitzer showed that even in that early epoch some galaxies had already grown to the size of present-day galaxies and that they must have formed within a few hundred million years of the big bang that gave birth to the universe some 13.7 billion years ago. Such observations can provide stringent tests of theories of the origin and growth of structure in the evolving universe.

Because Spitzer was sensitive to infrared radiation emitted from dust, it also discovered Saturn’s outermost ring, which extends from 7.3 to 11.8 million km (4.6 to 7.4 million miles) from Saturn and is the largest planetary ring in the solar system. This dust ring arises from impacts on the moon Phoebe, and particles from this ring that spiral inward toward Saturn have caused the marked asymmetry in brightness between the two hemispheres of Iapetus.

Astronomers continued to use all of Spitzer’s capabilities until May 15, 2009, when the liquid helium cryogen was depleted. Even without the helium, however, Spitzer’s unique thermal design and its solar orbit ensured that the telescope and instruments reached a new equilibrium at a temperature of only 30 K (−243 °C, or −405 °F). At this temperature, Spitzer’s two shortest-wavelength-detector arrays continued to operate without any loss of sensitivity. Spitzer’s 5.5-year cryogenic mission was thus followed by a “warm Spitzer” mission, which lasted until the satellite was decommissioned on January 30, 2020.