How do underground Lycopodium gametophytes obtain nutrients?

Subterranean Lycopodium gametophytes obtain nutrients through a symbiotic relationship with an associated fungus. Because these gametophytes are subterranean and lack the ability to photosynthesize, they are dependent upon this fungal association for their continued growth and development.12

These underground structures are typically long-lived, slow-growing, and can take up to eight years to reach sexual maturity. While surface-growing Lycopodium gametophytes may possess green lobes for photosynthesis, the subterranean types remain colorless and rely entirely on their fungal partners to acquire the necessary nutrients to survive and mature within the soil.12