How do some ferns reproduce without fertilization?

Some ferns are capable of reproducing without fertilization through a process known as apogamy, which allows them to bypass the sexual fusion of gametes.12

In apogamous ferns, the sporophyte generation is produced directly from the gametophyte through nuclear and cell division on vegetative cells, rather than through the union of sperm and egg. This process can occur naturally in certain species, such as the holly fern, or it can be induced in normally sexual ferns by environmental stressors, such as withholding water—which prevents sperm from swimming—or by growing gametophytes in specific culture media.132

Additionally, many ferns utilize vegetative reproduction as a primary means of propagation. This involves the formation of clones through rhizomes or through root and leaf proliferations, allowing the plant to expand its presence without relying on the sexual cycle.2