Why was literacy close to universal in the German Empire?

Literacy in the German Empire was close to universal primarily due to long-standing compulsory education laws that had been established in Prussia as early as the 1820s and 1830s.1

This commitment to widespread schooling was rooted in a much older tradition of state intervention and social values:

• Early State Initiatives: The principle of compulsory attendance was asserted by Frederick II the Great in 1763, building upon earlier edicts and the 1717 order by Frederick William I requiring children to attend school where available.2
• Cultural Influence: Martin Luther’s emphasis on the educational responsibilities of the individual helped foster a public opinion that accepted these mandates.2
• The Volksschule: During the Imperial era, the Volksschule served as the foundation for this literacy. It was a free, universal, and compulsory primary school system that focused on basic subjects, morality, and vocational efficiency for the general population.3

While the system was highly effective at achieving near-universal literacy, it remained class-stratified, as the Volksschule was largely separate from the fee-paying secondary schools attended by the upper social and economic strata.34