Why have some Kalanga people resisted full incorporation into Tswana identity?

Some Kalanga people in Botswana have resisted full incorporation into Tswana identity largely due to their cultural and historical ties to larger populations located to the east in Zimbabwe.1

While the state of Botswana characterizes its entire population as Batswana regardless of ethnic origin, the dominance of Tswana culture—often referred to as Tswanadom—has historically sought to incorporate various ethnic groups into its social structure. Unlike other groups such as the Khalagari, who have become almost indistinguishable from the Tswana, the Kalanga maintain a distinct identity supported by their significant presence across the border.1