Why did political parties in Lebanon often reflect communal and personal loyalties rather than national interests?

In Lebanon, political parties and blocs have historically functioned as extensions of parochial, communal, and personal loyalties rather than as vehicles for a unified national purpose. This structure is deeply rooted in the country's political system, which formalizes sectarian identity through power-sharing arrangements.12

The dominance of these loyalties is sustained by several factors:

• Sectarian Governance: The National Pact of 1943 and subsequent agreements established a framework where high-level government positions are reserved for specific religious groups, such as the Maronite Christian president, Sunni prime minister, and Shiʿi speaker of the National Assembly. This institutionalizes sectarian identity as the primary lens for political participation.321
• Patronage Networks: Historically, the political landscape was dominated by zuʿamāʾ (old semifeudal elites) who maintained power through extensive patronage networks. These elites provided services and support to their specific communities, creating personal loyalties that competed with the development of a centralized, state-led social service system.45
• Lack of Civic Identity: Because the state’s political logic relies on balancing these sectarian interests, a broader, secular national or civic identity has struggled to take root, leaving the political process to prioritize communal representation over national interests.1