Which religions were widespread among Tamils before the rise of early bhakti literature?

Before the rise of the bhakti movement—which began in the Tamil region between the 6th and 9th centuries—the religious landscape among Tamils included several traditions.

While early Sangam literature primarily focused on secular themes of love and heroism, it also provides evidence of devotion to specific deities, including Tirumal (Vishnu) and Murugan, as well as the personification of the Vaigai River as a goddess.1

Additionally, Buddhism was a significant presence in the region during this period. The Tamil epic Manimekalai, dating to the 4th–6th centuries, is the only extant Tamil Buddhist work, reflecting the religion's influence before it began to decline in the face of rising devotional Hindu movements. Jainism was also practiced in the region, as both Buddhism and Jainism had established themselves as major religions in India by the 6th–5th century BCE, often receiving patronage from ruling clans and the mercantile community.2345