Which mountain ranges shape the landscape of Kashmir?

The landscape of Kashmir is defined by several major mountain systems that contribute to its predominantly rugged and mountainous terrain. These ranges include:1

• Pir Panjal Range: Situated in the Lesser Himalayas, this range separates the Jammu foothills from the fertile Vale of Kashmir.21
• Great Himalayas: Rising northeast of the Vale of Kashmir, these mountains feature peaks reaching elevations of 20,000 feet (6,100 meters) or higher.1
• Karakoram Range: Located to the northeast, this system contains some of the world’s highest peaks, including K2.31
• Ladakh Range: An extension of the Karakoram Range, it runs parallel to the northeast bank of the Indus River.34
• Zanskar Range: Located in the eastern part of the region, this range runs parallel to the Great Himalayas.5

These ranges, formed by the ongoing subduction of the Indian tectonic plate beneath the Eurasian Plate, create a complex topography of deep, narrow valleys and high, barren plateaus.1