When did ancient Egyptian civilization begin and end?

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Side view of the Sphinx with the Great Pyramid of Khufu rising behind it on the Giza Plateau near Cairo, Egypt. — ancient Egypt Side view of the Sphinx with the Great Pyramid of Khufu (Cheops) rising in the background, Giza, Egypt.

Ancient Egyptian civilization began with the unification of the Nile valley states under the 1st dynasty, which occurred around 2900–3100 BCE.123

The end of ancient Egyptian civilization is generally associated with the conclusion of the Ptolemaic dynasty in 30 BCE, when Egypt became part of the Roman Empire following the deaths of Cleopatra VII and her son Ptolemy XV Caesar. While the traditional dynastic history established by the priest Manetho concludes with the 30th dynasty, scholars often include subsequent periods—such as the Macedonian and Ptolemaic eras—as part of the broader scope of ancient Egyptian history.2